Flupirtine Maleate

Gulf War Illness (GWI) has been consistently linked to exposure to pyridostigmine (PB), N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), permethrin (PER), and traces of sarin. In this study, diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP, sarin surrogate) and the GWI-related chemicals were found to reduce the number of functionally active neurons in rat hippocampal slices. These findings confirm a link between GWI neurotoxicants and N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA)-mediated excitotoxicity, which was successfully reversed by Edelfosine (a phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ3) inhibitor) and Flupirtine (a Kv7 channel agonist). To test whether 4R-cembranoid (4R), a nicotinic α7 acetylcholinesterase receptor (α7AChR) modulator known for its neuroprotective properties, can restore hippocampal neurons from glutamate-induced neurotoxicity, we exposed rat hippocampal slices with DFP for 10 min followed by 60 min treatment with 4R. We investigated the 4R mechanisms of neuroprotection after preincubation with LY294002, PD98059, and KN-62. The inhibition of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK1/2), and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII) abrogated the protective effect of 4R against DFP-induced neurotoxicity. In separate experiments, after incubation with DFP, followed by 4R for 1 h, cellular extracts were prepared for Western blotting of phospho-Akt, phospho-GSK3β, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2, CaMKII and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). Our results show that DFP induces neuronal dysfunction by dephosphorylation, while 4R restores the phosphorylation of Akt, GSK3, ERK1/2, CREB, and CaMKII. Moreover, our proteomics analysis supported the notion that 4R activates additional signaling pathways related to enhancing neuronal signaling, synaptic plasticity, and apoptotic inhibition to promote cell survival against DFP, offering biomarkers for developing treatment against GWI.