Potassium Deficiency

Food security and healthy ecosystems are placed in jeopardy by poor potassium management. Six actions may prevent declines in crop yield due to soil potassium deficiency, safeguard farmers from potash price volatility and address environmental concerns associated with potash mining.

The inland saline waters were continuously observed to have low potassium concentrations compared to their seawater counterpart of the same salinity. We hypothesize that the toxic effect of sulfate may manifest in low potassium saline (LPSW) waters compared to brackish water of the same salinity. Thus, LC₅₀ trials were performed in GIFT (genetically improved farmed tilapia) fry (0.5 ± 0.02 g) to determine the acute sulfate toxicity in freshwater (FW, 0.5 g L^-1), artificial seawater (ASW, 10 g L^-1), and LPSW (10 g L^-1). The median lethal concentrations (96h LC₅₀) of sulfate ion in FW, LPSW, and ASW for the GIFT were 5.30 g L^-1, 2.56 g L^-1, and 2.98 g L^-1, respectively. A second experiment was conducted for 21 days, exposing fish to a sub-lethal level of sulfate ion (SO₄^2-) concentration (1000 mg L^-1, one-fifth of FW LC₅₀) with different types of waters (FW, freshwater, 0.5 g L^-1; ASW, artificial seawater, 10 g L^-1; LPSW, low potassium saline water, 10 g L^-1) with and without sulfate inclusion to constitute the treatments as follows, (FW, FW + SO₄, ASW, ASW + SO₄, LPSW, LPSW + SO₄). The effect of sulfate on GIFT reared in sulfate-rich potassium-deficient medium saline water was evaluated by focusing on the hematological adjustments, stress-induced oxidative damage, and osmoregulatory imbalances. The survival was not altered due to the sulfate concentration and K⁺ deficiency; however, there were significant changes in branchial NKA (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase) activity and osmolality. The increase in NKA was highest in LPSW treatment, suggesting that internal ionic imbalance was triggered due to an interactive effect of sulfate and K⁺ deficiency. The cortisol levels showed a pronounced increase due to sulfate inclusion irrespective of K⁺ deficiency. The antioxidant enzymes, i.e., SOD (superoxide dismutase), catalase, GST (glutathione-S-transferase), and GPX (glutathione peroxidase), reflected a similar pattern of increment in the gills and liver of the LPSW + SO₄ groups, suggesting a poor antioxidant status of the exposed group. The hepatic peroxidation status, i.e. TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances), and the peroxide values were enhanced due to both K⁺ deficiency and sulfate inclusion, suggesting a possible lipid peroxidation in the liver due to handling the excess sulfate anion concentration. The hematological parameters, including haemoglobin, total erythrocyte count, and hematocrit level, reduced significantly in the LPSW + SO₄ group, indicating a reduced blood oxygen capacity due to the sulfate exposure and water potassium deficiency. The hepatic acetylcholine esterase activity was suppressed in all the treatments with sulfate inclusion, while the highest suppression was observed in the LPSW + SO₄ group. Thus, it is concluded that sulfate-induced physiological imbalances manifest more in potassium-deficient water, indicating that environmental sulfate is more detrimental to inland saline water than freshwater or brackish water of the same salinity.